Using Cell Balancing to Maximize the Capacity of
Multi-cell Li-Ion Battery Packs
AN167 Rev 0.00 Page 2 of 9
Jun 7, 2005
SOC Balancing
SOC balancing is used when all cells in the pack have the
same capacity. As such, cells are considered balanced when:
Looking at an individual cell, the state of charge is defined as:
The capacity of a cell is defined as:
To determining the capacity of a cell (C), the cell is fully
discharged to its minimum operating voltage, then charged,
while measuring the current and the time, until it reaches an
open circuit voltage (OCV) of 4.20V. With perfectly performing
cells, the SOC in this condition is 100%. A unique open circuit
voltage (OCV) is also associated with the 50% SOC and
usually known as V
MID
. A Typical V
MID
is 3.67V.
The definition of balanced cells is strictly true, even if the cells
have different capacities. In order to charge cells with different
capacities to the same SOC requires that some cells be
charged or discharged more or less than others in absolute
terms. This requires the use of a differential current (cell
balancing technique) and is termed Capacity/ Energy
Maximization.
Capacity/Energy Maximization
The term Capacity/Energy Maximization refers to the setting of
all series cells in a pack to the same SOC even though they
have different capacities. Managing the SOC at all times,
maximizes the energy output of the pack.
To maximize energy output, the cells must all be fully charged.
That is, the SOC of all cells is 100%. If the cells have different
capacities, some cells will charge and discharge more than
others. Consider the case where, in a 3 cell series stack, C
1
>
C
2
= C
3
. The only way to balance the pack is to apply a
differential charging current (cell balancing) to the cell with
higher capacity (C
1
). The same has to be done as the pack
discharges. If not done, then the total pack capacity diminishes
because the pack discharge shuts off when the cell with the
least capacity reaches its cutoff voltage. More important, in this
case, is that the weakest cell reaches cutoff while capacity
remains in the other cells. Over time, this degrades the
weakest cells faster than the others, thus accelerating capacity
loss over many charge/discharge cycles.
By matching the voltage of each cell in the string on the way
down, more current is drawn from the higher capacity cells.
During discharge this process requires that there is some
additional voltage loss while balancing, but in the end, when all
cells arrive at zero SOC, there is an increase in the total
energy extracted from the pack over time.
Cell Manufacturing State of the Art with
respect to Balancing
Li-ion cylindrical cells today generally have very good quality
control, with cell capacity matched to ±3 percent. The input
capacity is essentially exact and being within a few
milliampereseconds. So the absolute amount of charge (mAh)
is initially exact and the SOC is within a few percent.
Liion Self-discharge and the Need for SOC Mat ching
LiIon Chemistry does not create cell imbalance and has no
mechanism for reversible self discharge. On the other hand,
there is a process by which the cell chemistry stabilizes and
creates what is known as irreversible loss. Most of this loss is
experienced inside the factory. Since these cells are rejected in
the factory, gross errors are not observed by the user.
However, a small amount of irreversible loss can be
experienced in high temperature discharge and over long
periods of time at room temperature. The maximum amount
tends to be less than 10 percent and all cells stored or used
together will experience this effect at the same rate. So cell
imbalance is not created by this mechanism. There is a small
reversible loss associated with this irreversible loss but it is
proportional. The amount of reversible loss created in the
factory is recharged before capacity sorting. Therefore, loss is
the field is very small and consistent from cell to cell. Again it is
no cause for cell imbalance.
Another source of pack cell imbalance occurs when cells
remain on the shelf for long periods of time prior to assembly.
This is compounded if cells from different manufacturing lots
are mixed within a pack. In this case, cells with varying
reversible losses will have had time to accumulate significant
differences after capacity sorting operations, but before pack
assembly. Even after assembly, imbalances can develop over
time within the pack, if cells within a pack vary significantly –
especially if the pack remains “on the shelf” for a significant
period.
Soft Shorts
Soft shorts are the primary cause of cell imbalance in some
cells. Due to tiny imperfections in cell construction the cell can
have very high resistance shorts on the order of 40,000 or
more. The self discharge rate due to this higher resistance is
on the order of 0.1 milliamperes or 3% per month. Most cells
do not have this condition and can hold much of their capacity
for years. Some cells which meet specifications when they
leave the factory may sometimes develop this condition later.
This is strictly an electromechanical condition. Used in a single
cell pack, this cell can just be recharged and shows no
capacity loss. But, in a series pack, a cell with soft sorts could
lose 3% per month, while another cell loses none at all. This
differential SOC in the pack reduces overall pack capacity.
Without a corresponding capacity degradation, a conditioning
operation primarily needs to be done once before the device is
used, then occasionally again, if put in to storage. This
recovers the initial capacity loss, then a less aggressive
SOC
C
C
TOTAL percent
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