AN167.0

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Using Cell Balancing to Maximize the Capacity of

Multi-cell Li-Ion Battery Packs

Introduction

Common multiple cell configurations for LiIon cells in battery

packs consist of three or four cells in series, with one or

more cells in parallel. This combination gives both the

voltage and power necessary for Portable Computer,

medical, test and industrial applications. While these

configurations are common today, they may not be as

efficient as they could be. The reason for this is that any

capacity mismatch between cells in a series connection of

cells results in a reduction of overall pack capacity.

There are two kinds of mismatch in the pack,

State-of-Charge (SOC) and capacity/energy (C/E)

mismatch. Each problem limits the pack capacity (mAh) to

the capacity of the weakest cell. It is important to recognize

that the cell mismatch results more from limitations in

process control and inspection than from variations inherent

in the Lithium Ion chemistry. As such, these types of cell to

cell variation more likely occur in LiIon prismatic cells, due to

more extreme mechanical stresses, and in LiIon Polymer,

due to the newer processes involved.

The use of cell balancing can improve the performance of

series connected LiIon Cells by addressing both

State-of-Charge and Capacity/Energy issues. SOC

mismatch can be remedied by balancing the cell during an

initial conditioning period and subsequently only during the

charge phase. C/E mismatch can be remedied by balancing

during both charge and discharge periods. Even though the

defect level for a given cell manufacturer may be very low,

the extra confidence that a pack will not be returned,

because of an early end of life, may be well worth the extra

effort. It provides another level of quality assurance.

To provide some insight into the issues, this article discusses

cell balancing, offers some guidelines for implementing cell

balancing, and provides some actual results achieved

through cell balancing techniques.

Definition of Cell Balancing

For portable systems requiring 6V or more of operating

voltage, battery packs utilize battery cells connected in

series. A series connection results in a pack voltage equal to

the sum of the cell voltages. For portable computers (PCs),

the battery pack typically has 3 or 4 cells in series with

nominal voltages of 10.8V or 14.4V. In the majority of these

applications, the system requires more energy than is

provided by a single series string of battery cells. Since the

largest cell typically available (i.e. 18650) has a capacity

2000mAh, a PC requiring 50–60 Whr. of energy (5000–6000

mAh) requires three cells connected in parallel to each of the

series cells.

Cell balancing is defined as the application of differential

currents to individual cells (or combinations of cells) in a

series string. Normally, of course, cells in a series string

receive identical currents. A battery pack requires additional

components and circuitry to achieve cell balancing.

Cell balancing is only considered when multiple cells in a

battery pack are connected in series and usually when there

are three or more series cells. Battery pack cells are

balanced when all the cells in the battery pack meet two

conditions.

1. If all cells have the same capacity, then they are balanced

when they have the same relative State of Charge (SOC.)

SOC is usually expressed in terms percent of rated

capacity. In this case, the Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) is

a good measure of the SOC. If, in an out of balance pack,

all cells can be differentially charged to full capacity

(balanced) then they will subsequently cycle normally

without any additional adjustments. This is mostly a one

shot fix. The customer usually has instructions with a new

pack to provide an overnight conditioning on the first

cycle. Overnight conditioning typically consists of one

complete discharge, followed by one complete charge

cycle. Conditioning the pack overnight reduces the

demands on the cell balance circuitry by minimizing the

load and maximizing the charge time.

2. If the cells have different capacities, they are also

considered balanced when the SOC is the same. But,

since SOC is a relative measure, the absolute amount of

capacity for each cell is different. To keep the cells with

different capacities at the same SOC, cell balancing must

provide differential amounts of current to cells in the

series string during both charge and discharge on every

cycle. Since charge and discharge cycles times can be

shorter than the initial charge time, this process demands

higher currents. Therefore, it is a much more demanding

issue.

When the cells in the battery pack are not balanced, the

battery pack has less available capacity. The capacity of the

weakest cell in the series string determines the overall pack

capacity. In an unbalanced battery pack, during charging,

one or more cells will reach the maximum charge level

before the rest of the cells in the series string. During

discharge the cells that are not fully charged will be depleted

before the other cells in the string, causing early

undervoltage shutdown of the pack.

Manufactured cell capacities are usually matched within 3%.

If less than optimal Li-ion cells are introduced in to a series

string pack or cells have been on the shelf for a long period

prior to pack assembly, a 150mV difference at full charge is

possible. This could result in a 13-18% reduction in battery

pack capacity.

Application Note

Authors: Carlos Martinez, Dave Sorlien, Raymond Goodrich,

Lance Chandler, Doug Magnuson

June 7, 2005

AN167.0

June 7, 2005

SOC Balancing

SOC balancing is used when all cells in the pack have the

same capacity. As such, cells are considered balanced

when:

Looking at an individual cell, the state of charge is defined

as:

The capacity of a cell is defined as:

To determining the capacity of a cell (C), the cell is fully

discharged to its minimum operating voltage, then charged,

while measuring the current and the time, until it reaches an

open circuit voltage (OCV) of 4.20V. With perfectly

performing cells, the SOC in this condition is 100%. A unique

open circuit voltage (OCV) is also associated with the 50%

SOC and usually known as V

MID

. A Typical V

MID

is 3.67V.

The definition of balanced cells is strictly true, even if the

cells have different capacities. In order to charge cells with

different capacities to the same SOC requires that some

cells be charged or discharged more or less than others in

absolute terms. This requires the use of a differential current

(cell balancing technique) and is termed Capacity/ Energy

Maximization.

Capacity/Energy Maximization

The term Capacity/Energy Maximization refers to the setting

of all series cells in a pack to the same SOC even though

they have different capacities. Managing the SOC at all

times, maximizes the energy output of the pack.

To maximize energy output, the cells must all be fully

charged. That is, the SOC of all cells is 100%. If the cells

have different capacities, some cells will charge and

discharge more than others. Consider the case where, in a 3

cell series stack, C

> C

= C

. The only way to balance the

pack is to apply a differential charging current (cell

balancing) to the cell with higher capacity (C

). The same

has to be done as the pack discharges. If not done, then the

total pack capacity diminishes because the pack discharge

shuts off when the cell with the least capacity reaches its

cutoff voltage. More important, in this case, is that the

weakest cell reaches cutoff while capacity remains in the

other cells. Over time, this degrades the weakest cells faster

than the others, thus accelerating capacity loss over many

charge/discharge cycles.

By matching the voltage of each cell in the string on the way

down, more current is drawn from the higher capacity cells.

During discharge this process requires that there is some

additional voltage loss while balancing, but in the end, when

all cells arrive at zero SOC, there is an increase in the total

energy extracted from the pack over time.

Cell Manufacturing State of the Art with

respect to Balancing

Li-ion cylindrical cells today generally have very good quality

control, with cell capacity matched to ±3 percent. The input

capacity is essentially exact and being within a few

milliampereseconds. So the absolute amount of charge

(mAh) is initially exact and the SOC is within a few percent.

Liion Self-discharge and the Need for SOC

Matching

LiIon Chemistry does not create cell imbalance and has no

mechanism for reversible self discharge. On the other hand,

there is a process by which the cell chemistry stabilizes and

creates what is known as irreversible loss. Most of this loss

is experienced inside the factory. Since these cells are

rejected in the factory, gross errors are not observed by the

user. However, a small amount of irreversible loss can be

experienced in high temperature discharge and over long

periods of time at room temperature. The maximum amount

tends to be less than 10 percent and all cells stored or used

together will experience this effect at the same rate. So cell

imbalance is not created by this mechanism. There is a

small reversible loss associated with this irreversible loss but

it is proportional. The amount of reversible loss created in

the factory is recharged before capacity sorting. Therefore,

loss is the field is very small and consistent from cell to cell.

Again it is no cause for cell imbalance.

Another source of pack cell imbalance occurs when cells

remain on the shelf for long periods of time prior to

assembly. This is compounded if cells from different

manufacturing lots are mixed within a pack. In this case,

cells with varying reversible losses will have had time to

accumulate significant differences after capacity sorting

operations, but before pack assembly. Even after assembly,

imbalances can develop over time within the pack, if cells

within a pack vary significantly – especially if the pack

remains “on the shelf” for a significant period.

Soft Shorts

Soft shorts are the primary cause of cell imbalance in some

cells. Due to tiny imperfections in cell construction the cell

can have very high resistance shorts on the order of

40,000Ω or more. The self discharge rate due to this higher

resistance is on the order of 0.1 milliamperes or 3% per

month. Most cells do not have this condition and can hold

much of their capacity for years. Some cells which meet

specifications when they leave the factory may sometimes

develop this condition later. This is strictly an

electromechanical condition. Used in a single cell pack, this

cell can just be recharged and shows no capacity loss. But,

in a series pack, a cell with soft sorts could lose 3% per

SOC

…SOC

CELLN

===

SOC

TOTAL percent()

-----------------------------------------------

Cit×()mAh=

Application Note 167